Language is a system of finite arbitrary symbols combined according to rules of grammar for the purpose of communication. Individual languages use sounds, gestures and other symbols to represent objects, concepts, emotions, ideas, and thoughts.

A lingua franca is any language widely used beyond its native speakers, primarily for international commerce but extending to other cultural exchanges, such as diplomacy. The origin of the term lingua franca is Italian (literally “Frankish language”), derived from the medieval Arab and Muslim use of “Franks” (ancient Germans) as a generic term for Europeans during the period of the Crusades.

Originally “lingua franca” referred to a mix of mostly Italian with a broad vocabulary drawn from Turkish, Persian, French, Greek and Arabic. This mixed language (pidgin, creole) was used for communication throughout the medieval and early modern Middle East as a diplomatic language; the generic description “lingua franca” has since become common for any language used by speakers of different languages to communicate with one another.

First language (native language, mother tongue, or vernacular) is the language a person learns first. Correspondingly, the person is called a native speaker of the language. Usually a child learns the basics of their first language from their family.

The term “mother tongue” could be misleading. In some paternal societies, mothers are from different places and speak different dialects or languages, yet their children usually only speak their local language. Only a few will learn to speak his or her mother’s language like a native. Mother in this context probably originated from the definition of mother as source, or origin; as in mother-country or land.

Native speakers of English are people whose first language is English. They learned English when they were children. They think in English. They use it naturally. Usually native speakers of English are people from English-speaking countries like the USA, Great Britain, Australia, Canada, Ireland, etc.

Standard English is a general term for a form of written and spoken English that is considered the model for educated people. There are no set rules or vocabulary for “standard English” because, unlike languages such as French or Dutch, English does not have a governing body to establish usage. As a result, the concept of “standard English” tends to be fluid. Various regional and national “standards” exist.

The two most common internationally recognized varieties of standard English are American English and British English (also known as Commonwealth English).

The English language is a West Germanic language that originated from languages brought by Germanic settlers from various parts of north-west Germany, including what later became known as Friesland, during the first half of the first millenium. The language was subsequently influenced by two successive waves of invasion. The first was by speakers of languages in the Scandinavian branch of the Germanic family, who colonised the island in the eighth and ninth centuries. The second wave was by the Normans in the 11th century, who spoke a variety of French. These two invasions caused English to become highly ‘creolised’; creolisation arises from the cohabitation of speakers of different languages, who develop a hybrid tongue for basic communication. Cohabition with the Scandinavians resulted in a significant grammatical simplification and lexical enrichment of the Anglo–Friesian core of English; the later Norman occupation led to the grafting onto that Germanic core a more elaborate layer of words from the Romance branch of European languages; this new layer entered English through use in the courts and government. Thus, English developed into a ‘borrowing’ language of considerable suppleness and huge vocabulary.

We have the OCS briefing on Friday morning. After some discussions, one of the managers presented their action plans. They suggested having bimonthly departmental meeting instead of monthly meeting. The manager explained that having more meetings would enable communications to flow faster. What she meant was to have two meetings a month instead of once a month.

According to the dictionary, the word “bimonthly” means every two months, such as bimonthly magazines. What those managers suggested was to have a meeting every two weeks. In this case, she could have said, “We proposed to have two meetings a month.” She could also use “fortnightly” or “biweekly”.

In Singapore, we do come across people using words differently from the standard usage. Here I have gathered some words that are commonly used locally.

We do hear people say, “He horned at me on the highway”. This is incorrect as “horn” is a noun and it cannot be used as a verb. We should say, ”He sounded his horn at me”.

Many times we heard people saying, “I am so blur”. “Blur” is either a noun meaning something that is not clear or is indistinct, or a verb that means to become indistinct. It is not an adjective. The correct word to use is “confused”.

There are times we heard people say, “I will ask my boss for an off day because I came back to work last Saturday”. In Standard English, an off day is a day when we feel ill or when everything goes wrong. A day off is a day when we do not have to work. So, we should say, “I will ask my boss for an day off”.

Someone came over to the workstation and asked, “Where is she?” Another person answered, “She is on MC”. MC stands for “Medical Certificate”. What we mean is that she is sick and unable to come to work. We should say, “She is ill or she is on medical leave.”

One day I saw a piece of paper pasted on the photocopy machine. It was written, “The photocopy is not working”. Photocopy as a noun is a copy of a document made using a photocopier. We heard people say, “This is a photocopy it is not an original copy”. As a verb, photocopy refers to the process of making copy of a document using the photocopier. If the machine is not working, we could say, “This machine is not working” or “The photocopy machine is not working” or “The photocopier is not working”.

Source: from the book “Grammar Matters”

A pidgin is a language which has no native speakers. Pidgins develop as a means of communication between people who do not have a common language. Pidgin seems particularly likely to arise when two groups of people with different languages are communicating in a situation where there is a third dominant language. In the Caribbean slave plantations in the 17th and 18th centuries, the African salves were deliberately separated from others who used the same language to reduce the risk of their plotting to escape or rebel. In order to communicate with each other, as well as with their overseers, these slaves developed pidgins based on the language of the plantation bosses as well as their own languages.

Pidgins also developed as the languages of trade between traders – those who use colonial language such as Portuguese, Spanish, or English and the Indians, Chinese, Africans or American Indians they were trading with.

Initially, Pidgins develop with a narrow range of functions. These who use them do speak other languages. Pidgin is an addition to their language repertoire used for a specific purpose, such as trade or perhaps administration.

Pidgins often have a short life spend. If they develop for a restricted function, they disappear when the function disappears. In Vietnam a pidgin English developed for use between the American troops and the Vietnamese, but it subsequently dies out. A trading pidgin using disappears when the trade between the groups dies out. Alternatively, if trade grows, then more contacts will generally lead to at least one side learning the other’s language and so the need for the pidgin disappears. In some cases, however, pidgins go on to develop into fully fledged languages or creoles.

A creole is a pidgin which has acquired native speakers. Many of the languages which are called pidgins are in fact now creole language. They are learned by children as their first language and used in a wide range of domains.

A creole is a pidgin which has expanded in structure and vocabulary to express the range of meanings and serve the range of functions required by a first language.

Many present-day Creoles are spoken by descendants of the African salves in America and the Caribbean. The common language of the plantation was generally a pidgin, and children naturally acquired the pidgin as a first language. As the ‘families’ communicative needs expanded, so did the resources of the language they used. The pidgin developed into a creole.

Source : “An Introduction to Sociolinguistics” by Janet Holmes. Published by Pearson Education Limited, UK.

Here are some of the great wonders of the world, created by man and nature.

Wonders of Man’s Creation

(1) The Colosseum in Rome, Italy
This is a symbol of an entire civilisation and an ancient capital’s greatest architectural legacy. Used by the Romans for gladiatorial combats, fights of wild beasts, and other spectacles.

(2) Machu Picchu in Peru, South America
Mysterious niches long hidden in cloud forests high in the Andes. Located at a high altitude on a ridge between two peaks, about 600m (about 1950 ft) above the Urubamba River, the ruined city covers above 13 square km (about 5 square miles) of terraces built around a central plaza and linked by numerous stairways. The city was discovered in 1911.

(3) The Great Wall in China
The well-known Great Wall is a gigantic stone line snaking across the Asian landscape. Fortification along the northern and north-western frontier of China, running from Jinwangdao (Chinwangtao) on the Gulf of Chihli (Bo hai or Po Hai) on the east to the vicinity of Gaodai (Kaotai), Gansu (Kansu) Province, on the west, with an inner wall running southward from the vicinity of Peking almost to Handan (Hantan). The largest portion of the wall was erected by Shih Huang Ti, first emperor of the Ch’in dynasty, as a defence against raids by nomadic people.

(4) The Kremlin in Russia
Protecting the grand churches, cathedrals and palaces of the aristocracy.

(5) Versailles in France
Lavish luxury amid the world’s most stunning palace and gardens.

(6) The Statue of Liberty in New York, U.S.A.
A modern-day colossus symbolising the American dream. Originally called Liberty Enlightening the World, colossal copper and iron sate on Liberty Island, formerly Bedloe’s Island, at the entrance to New York Harbour. The statue, the island, and nearby Ellis Island were declared a national monument in 1924. The statue was given by the French people to the U.S. to commemorate the centennial of American independence. The statue is of a proud woman in flowing robes and with a spiked crown, who holds a torch aloft with her right arm and carries in her left arm a book inscribed “July 4, 1776”. The broken chains of slavery are at her feet. The figure is formed of copper sheets riveted to a iron framework and is bolted to a star-shaped stone base. It rises 93 m (305 ft) from the bottom of the pedestal to the tip of the torch. The figure alone is 42.05 m (151 ft 1 in) high and weights 204 metric tons. The status is conceived as a grand and lasting gesture of international freedom.

(7) The Eiffel Tower in Paris, France
A remnant of Old World elegance that forever altered Parisians’ view of their world. The Eiffel Tower was built for the Paris World’s Fair of 1889.

(8) Mount Rushmore National Monument and Chief Crazy Horse Monument in South Dakota, U.S.A.
Etched in stone, enduring tributes to a nation’s heritage.

Wonders of Nature Creation

(1) The Grand Canyon in Arizona, U.S.A.
Intricate layers of rock reveal the story of life on earth. The Grand Canyon is about 349 km (about 217 miles) long, 6 to 29 km (4 to 18 miles) wide, and more than 1.6 km (more than 1 mile) deep. The Canyon cuts steeply through an arid plateau region that lies between about 1,525 and 1,745 m (about 5000 and 9000 ft) above sea level.

(2) The Serengeti in Kenya/Tanzania, East Africa.
Hundreds of thousands of animals in a death-defying migration unchanged since the dawn of man.

(3) The Sahara Desert in Niger, West Africa.
A waterless sea of sand where one wrong turn can prove fatal. The entire desert, the largest in the world, is about 1,610 km (about 1,000 miles) wide and about 5,150 km (about 3,200 miles) long from East to West. The total area of the Sahara is more than 9,065,000 square km (more than 3,500,000 square miles), of which some 207,200 square km (some 80,000 square miles) consist of partially fertile oases.

(4) Iguazu Falls in Argentina/Brazil, South America
The world’s most spectacular waterfalls, with myriad rainbows appearing and Then vanishing in the mist. The crest of the falls is more than 60 m (200 ft) high; the water falls partly in a large double drop and partly in a series of cataracts. In the dry season two crescents of water are formed, each 732 m (2,400 ft) wide. In the wet season the two merge into one vast fall more than 3 km (2 miles) wide.

(5) The Amazon River in Brazil/Peru, South America
Largest rainforest on the globe, sheltering half of the genetic heritage of life on this planet. This is the world’s largest river, in terms of watershed area, number of tributaries, and volume of water discharged. It measures about 6,275 km (about 3,900 miles) from source to mouth, it is the second in length only to the Nile among the rivers of the world. It is estimated that the Amazon River discharges between 34 to 121 million litres (9 and 32 million gallon) of water per second and deposits a daily average of 3 million tons of sediment near its mouth. The annual outflow from the river accounts for one-fifth of all fresh water that drains into oceans in the world.

(6) Ayers Rock in Australia
This is an enormous island of stone, its colours ever-changing in the rays of the moving sun.

(7) The Himalayas in Nepal
An awesome sanctuary where peaks seem to touch the heavens. Comprising of a series of parallel and converging ranges and forming the highest mountain region in the world. More than 30 peaks of the Himalayas rise to height of 7,620 m (25,000 ft) or more, and one of these, Mt Everest (8,848m or 29,028 ft), is the world’s highest mountain.

Wonders Sacred and Mysterious

(1) Stonehenge in Salisbury Plain, England
Enigmatic stone sentinels create the world’s most mysterious prehistoric site.

(2) The Great Pyramids in Giza, Egypt
The first – and last – of the original Great Wonders of the ancient world.

(3) Hagia Sophia in Istanbul, Turkey
Celebrating the glories of two great empires and the faiths that inspired each.

(4) Borobudur in Java, Indonesia
Intricate “books” carved in stone to be “read” by the faithfully.

(5) St. Peter’s Basilia in Vatican city
Glorious testament to a simple fisherman whose extraordinary faith changed the world.

(6) The Taj Mahal in Agra, India
This is one of the word’s most beautiful buildings – inspired by a timeless love story. A must see if you go to India.

Here are some questions that should not be asked.

(1) Doctor, isn’t it true that when a person dies in his sleep, he doesn’t know about it until the next morning?

(2) The youngest son, the twenty-year-old, how old is he?

(3) Were you present when your picture was taken?

(4) Were you alone or by yourself?

(5) Was it you or your younger brother who was killed in the war?

(6) Did he kill you?

(7) How far apart were the vehicles at the time of the collision?

(8) Q : She had three children, right?
A : Yes.
Q : How many were boys?
A : None.
Q: Were there any girls?

(9) Q : You say the stairs went down to the basement?
A : Yes.
Q : And these stairs, did they go up also?

(10) Q : How was your first marriage terminated?
A : By death.
Q : And by whose death was it terminated?

(11) Q : Can you describe the individual?
A : He was about medium height and have a beard.
Q : Was this a male or a female?

(12) Q : Doctor, before you performed the autopsy, did you check for a pulse?
A : No.
Q : Did you check for blood pressure ?
A : No.
Q : Did you check for breathing?
A : No.
Q : So, then it is possible that the patient was alive when you began the autopsy?
A : No.
Q : How can you be so sure, Doctor?
A : Because his brain was sitting on my desk in a jar.
Q : But could the patient have still been alive nevertheless?

Source : “Wrong!” by Jane O’Boyle. Published by Michael O’Mara Books Ltd.

Someone says: “Thank you”. The other person answers: “Never mind.”
“Never mind” is usually used after an apology to tell the other person not to worry. The Correct way – Not at all or Don’t mention it

I will come and see you despite of my work in school.
We do not use the preposition “of” after the word “despite”. But we can use it after the words “in spite” and say “in spite of”. The correct way – I will come and see you despite my work in school.

Ah Beng is pale and his house is in Hougang.
The coordinating conjunction “and” should join related ideas together. In this case, there does not appear to be any link between the two halves of the sentence. The correct way – Ah Beng is pale and looks sick.

She’ll be taken in irregardless of what she has been through.
The affixes “ir-“ and “-less” convey the same meaning. It is repetitive to have both them both in one word. The correct way – She’ll be taken in regardless of what she has been through.

This is with regards to what I had said earlier during the interview.
We should also say “as regards” and “in regard to”. The correct way – This is with regard to what I had said earlier during the interview.

The reason for her low grades in Maths and English is because of her poor hearing.
It is incorrect to say, “the reason is because” or “the reason is … on account of.” The correct way – The reason for her low grades in Maths and English is that she has poor hearing.

He can’t hardly copy with work in school.
“Hardly” is considered as a negative so we do not add another negative such as “not” or “can’t”. The correct way – He can hardly cope with work in school.

Anyways, I think I was right when I said that.
“Anyways”, “everywheres”, nowheres” and “somewheres” are colloquial forms. They are sub-standard and therefore should be avoided especially in formal communication situations. The correct way – Anyway, I think I was right when I said theat.

The girl behaves like she distrusts her mother.
We use “as if: as a conjunction. “Like” is used as a preposition. The correct way – The girl behaves as if she distrusts her mother or the girl behaves like a rebel.

Because of his parents didn’t want him, he was adopted by another.
“Because of” is a preposition used with nouns that “because” is a conjunction used to join clauses or ideas. The correct way – Because his parent didn’t want him, he was adopted by another or because of the trouble, he was adopted by another.

This is the season where we give out hongbao to the poor.
“Season” is a time and not a place so we usually use “when” to refer to it. The correct way – This is the season when we give out hongbao to the poor.

He has the idea whereby nobody is allowed to bid before the start of the sale.
“Whereby” means “in which” and is normally used for arrangement or system. It can sound rather formal or even old-fashion. The correct way – He had the idea that nobody was allowed to bid before the start of the sale.

I had an enjoyable holiday with my Dad, also my Mum.
“Also” is an adverb, not a conjunction. We used “and” to link two words like this. The correct way – I had an enjoyable holiday with my Dad and Mum.

Although we enjoyed the drive, we look forward to doing it again.
“Since” introduces an idea that is the reason for the main idea. “Although introduces on idea which seems contrary to the main idea. The correct way – Since we enjoyed the drive, we look forward to doing it again or although we enjoyed the drive, we don’t be going again.

The reason why I didn’t go was because I was down with flu.
It is repetitive to use both “the reason” and “because”. We should choose to use one of the other. The correct way – The reason I didn’t go was I was down with the flu or I didn’t go because I was down with the flu.

Next week can or not?
We usually form yes/no questions by inverting the modal verb (in this case “can”) and the subject (in this case “you”}. The correct way – Can you come next week?

The student handed up his work.
When we give something to someone in authority such as the police or a teacher, we use the expression “had in”. The Correct way – The student handed in his work.

She’s offing the light. Can I on the television?
Off and on cannot be used as verbs. The correct verbs are “switch off” and “switch on”. Open and close cannot be used instead of switch on/off. The correct way – She’s switching off the light. Can I switch on the television?

Where do you stay?
If you want to know where a person’s home is, we usually use the word live. Stay is only for short periods such as a holiday or a visit. The correct way – Where do you live.

Where do you stay?
If you want to know which hotel a tourist is using, we usually use the continuous form are staying. This shows it is only for a short time. The correct way – Where are you staying?

Please keep the toys.
To keep something means not to give it to others. When we want to put something in its proper place, we put it away. The correct way – Please put away the toys.

I have hurt my arm so could you please help me wear my jacket?
We have to put on the jacket so that we can wear it. To stop wearing it, we take off the jacket. The correct way – I have hurt my arm so could you please help me put me my jacket?

U-turn back at the lights.
“U-turn” is a noun that means a 180 degree turn to move in the opposite direction. We do not need “back” as the meaning is already there. The correct way – Make a U-turn at the lights.

Grand Opening – Officiated by the Chair of the Council.
People officiate at ceremonies; we cannot say they officiate ceremonies or that the ceremonies are officiated by them. However, the opening is being done by the Choir of the Council. The correct way – Grand Opening – By the Chair of the Council.

I asked her whether if I could go.
Usually we can choose to use either “if: or “whether” but we cannot use both at the same time. The correct way – I asked her if I could go or I asked her whether I could go.

The price of petrol would rise next week.
“Will” is used for certainty. The correct way – The price of petrol will raise next week.

Our proposal has been approved. All the old phones would be replaced before the end of the month.
“Will” is used for certainty. The correct way – Our proposal has been approved. All the old phones will be replaced before the end of the month.

They will be arriving tonight, is it?
The correct form of the question tag should match the main sentence. The correct way – They will be arriving today, won’t they?

We should ask the committee members what steps have they taken to help members.
Note the word order for indirect question. The correct way – We should ask the committee members what steps they have taken to help members.

She enquired were there any seats left for the opera tomorrow night.
Note the word order for indirect questions. She enquired if there were any seats left for the opera tomorrow night.

Someone asks: “Would you like a cup of coffee?” The other person answers: “I don’t mind.”
“I don’t mind” suggest that we don’t care either way while “I wouldn’t mind” says we definitely would like the coffee. The correct way – I wouldn’t mind.

I’ll meet you at Orchard Road.
“In” is used to indicate position inside an area and “at” is used to indicate a position at a point. Orchard is a long road and a large area. The correct way – I’ll meet you in Orchard Road.

Last time he always visited me.
“Last time” refers to one occasion only, the last occasion that something happened. We do not use “last time” for something that happened frequently in the past. The correct way – He always used to visit us.

I saw her at the bus stop yesterday night.
We can say yesterday morning, yesterday evening but not yesterday night. The correct way – I saw her at the bus stop last night.

I ever play soccer before.
Ever means at “at any time” and is usually used only in questions. For examples, Have you ever played soccer? We do not usually put “ever” in the answer to the question. The correct way – I have played soccer before.

I went there last last year.
In standard English we do not repeat such words as “last”. For example, we do not say “I’m going next next year”. We say “I am going the year after next.” The correct way – I went there the year before last.

I did it already.
We normally use the present perfect with “already” as it indicates that the action talked about is still relevant to the present.The correct way – I have already done it.

You better be there early. You better don’t be slow.
The phrase is “had better”. The negative is “had better not”. The correct way – You had better be there early. You had better not be slow.

The National Day Parade was broadcasted on television.
The verb form of “broadcast” is the same in the present, past participle and past tense forms. The correct way – The National Day Parade was broadcast on television.

It was the first time to see the Grand Canyon.
We use “time to go/see/etc” to indicate that something should happen or is scheduled to happen at that time. When we want to say something simply happened at that time we use “that”. The correct way – It was the first time that I had seen the Grand Canyon.

There is a need of ideas.
We can talk about the needs of the people but ideas do not have needs. However, people have needs for ideas. The correct way – There is a need for ideas.

Let’s focus the problem.
We can “focus a camera”. We can also focus our attention on the problem”. We can use “focus” on its own to mean “focus attention” but then the verb “focus” is followed by on. The correct way – Let’s focus on the problem.

They presented her a medal.
We can say “They gave her a medal” which has almost the same meaning. However we cannot use the same pattern; we have to use “present somebody with something”. The correct way – They presented her with a medal. They presented a medal to her.

I was fascinated with her.
If we use “with” in this case, it could mean that you and she were fascinated together by something else. The correct way – I was fascinated by her.

He is lacking of experience.
The verb “lack” is followed by “in” or by no preposition at all, although the noun “lack” is followed by “of”. For example, the apprentices’ errors were due to their lack of experience. The correct way – He is lacking in experience or he lacks experience.

I got down the bus.
“Get down” is a term used by children when they ask for permission to leave the table. For example, “Please, Mum, may I get down?” The correct way – I got off the bus.

I shall pick you at six.
If I pick you, I choose you or (if you are a flower) I take you from the garden. Pick up is the expression used for meeting people and taking them home. The correct way – I shall pick you up at six.